Everything about Caliph totally explained
For main article see: Caliphate
The
Caliph is the
head of state in a
Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic
Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the
Shari'a. It is a transliterated version of the
Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative". The early leaders of the Muslim nation following
Muhammad's (570–632) death were called "Khalifat Rasul Allah", meaning the political successors to the messenger of God (referring to
Muhammad). Some academics prefer to transliterate the term as
Khalīf.
Caliphs were often also referred to as
Amīr al-Mu'minīn (أمير المؤمنين) "Commander of the Faithful",
Imam al-Ummah,
Imam al-Mu'minīn (إمام المؤمنين), or more colloquially, leader of the
Muslims. After the first four caliphs (
Abu Bakr,
Umar ibn al-Khattab,
Uthman ibn Affan, and
Ali ibn Abi Talib), the title was claimed by the
Umayyads, the
Abbasids, and the
Ottomans, and at times, by competing dynasties in
Spain,
Northern Africa, and
Egypt. Most historical Muslim governors were called
sultans or
amirs, and gave allegiance to a caliph, but at times had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the
Republic of Turkey abolished the
Ottoman Caliphate in
1924, although some individuals and groups have called for its restoration.
Succession to Muhammad
Fred Donner, in his book
The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice at the time was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves. There was no specified procedure for this
shura, or consultation. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual heir.
This is also the argument advanced by
Sunni Muslims, who believe that Muhammad's Father-in-law
Abu Bakr was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph may be ideally chosen by election or community consensus.
Shi'a Muslims disagree. They believe that Muhammad had given many indications that he considered
Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the West, Muslim rule expanded across
North Africa and into
Spain. To the East, it expanded through
Iran and ultimately to
India. This made it one of the largest empires in the
history of West Eurasia, extending its entire breadth.
However, the Umayyad dynasty wasn't universally supported within Islam itself. Some Muslims supported prominent early Muslims like
az-Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banū Hashim, or his own lineage, the descendants of ˤAlī, should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and Alid claims united to bring down the Umayyads in
750. However, the
Shiˤat ˤAlī, "the Party of ˤAlī", were again disappointed when the
Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle,
Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib and not from ˤAlī. Following this disappointment, the Shiˤat ˤAlī finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several Shiˤa denominations.
Abbasids
The Abbasids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by
940 the power of the caliphate under the Abbasids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the
Turkish (and later the
Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and
sultans and
emirs became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world.
During the period of the Abassid dynasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate didn't go unchallenged. The Shiˤa
Said ibn Husayn of the
Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendancy of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in
909, creating a separate line of caliphs in
North Africa. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking
Egypt and
Palestine, before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in
1171. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of
Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in
929, lasting until it was overthrown in
1031.
Shadow Caliphate
1258 saw the conquest of
Baghdad and the execution of Abassid caliph
al-Musta'sim by
Mongol forces under
Hulagu Khan. A surviving member of the Abbasid House was installed as Caliph at
Cairo under the patronage of the
Mamluk Sultanate three years later. However, the authority of this line of Caliphs was confined to ceremonial and religious matters, and later Muslim historians referred to it as a "shadow" caliphate.
Ottomans
As the
Ottoman Empire grew in size and strength, Ottoman rulers beginning with
Mehmed II began to claim caliphal authority. Their claim was strengthened when the Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517 and took control of most
Arab lands. The last Abbasid Caliph at Cairo,
al-Mutawakkil III, was taken into custody and was transported to
İstanbul, where he surrendered the Caliphate to
Selim I.
Ottoman rulers were known primarily by the title of Sultan.
According to Barthold, the first time the title of caliph was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the
Ottomans was the peace treaty with
Russia in
1774. The outcome of this war was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations such as
Crimea, were lost to the Christian
Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under
Abdulhamid I claimed a diplomatic victory, the recognition of themselves as protectors of Muslims in Russia as part of the peace treaty. This was the first time the
Ottoman caliph was acknowledged as having political significance outside of Ottoman borders by a
European power. As a consequence of this diplomatic victory, as the Ottoman borders were shrinking, the powers of the Ottoman caliph increased.
Around 1880 Sultan Abdulhamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering creeping European colonialism in Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of the
First World War, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness vis-à-vis Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. But the sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.
Abolition of the institution
On
March 3,
1924, the
Turkish Grand National Assembly, on the initiative of
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, abolished the institution of the Caliphate, transferring its powers within Turkey to the Assembly.
Occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the reestablishment of the Caliphate.
Notable Caliphs
Abu Bakr: First rightly guided caliph. Subdued rebel tribes in the Ridda Wars.
Umar ibn al-Khattab: Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem, and Persia.
Uthman ibn Affan: Third rightly guided caliph. The Qur'an was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels.
Ali ibn Abu Talib: Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first imam by Shi'a Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict.
Muawiya I: First caliph of the Umayyad Dynasty. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son Yazid as his successor, a trend that would continue through subsequent caliphates.
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan - Fifth caliph of Ummayad Dynasty, translated important records into Arabic, established an Islamic currency system, led additional wars against the Byzantines and ordered construction of the Dome of the Rock.
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz: Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph.
Harun al-Rashid: Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Haroon is the subject of many stories in the famous work 1001 Arabian Nights.
Selim I the Brave: First Caliph of the Ottoman Empire with the conquest of Egypt and the Holy Cities. Defeated the powerful Shia Safavid Empire.
Suleiman the Magnificent: Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith.
Abdul Mejid II: Last Caliph of the Ottoman Dynasty, the 101st Caliph in line from Caliph Abu Bakr. On August 23, 1944, Abdul Mejid II passed away at his house in the Boulevard Suchet, Paris XVIe, France. He was buried at Medina, Saudi Arabia.
Several Arabic surnames found throughout the Middle East are derived from the word khalifa. These include: Khalif, Khalifa, Khillif, Kalif, Kalaf, Khalaf, and Kaylif. The usage of this title as a surname is comparable to the existence of surnames such as King, Duke, and Noble in the English language.
Dynasties
The more important dynasties include:
The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus (661–750), followed by:
The Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (750–1258), and later in Cairo (under Mameluk control) (1260–1517).
The Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty in North Africa and Egypt (909–1171). Not universally accepted and not currently included in the list here.
The Rahmanids, a surviving branch of the Damascus Umayyads, established "in exile" as Emirs of Córdoba, Spain, declared themselves Caliphs (known as the Caliphs of Cordoba; not universally accepted; 929–1031).
The Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Spain (not universally accepted; 1145–1269). Traced their descent not from Muhammad, but from a puritanic reformer in Morocco who claimed to be the Mahdi (a puritanic reformer in Morocco, bringing down the "decadent" Almoravid emirate) whose son established a sultanate and claimed to be a caliph.
The Ottomans (1517–1924; main title Padishah, also known as Great Sultan etc.), assumed the title after defeating the Mamluk Sultanate and used it sporadically between the 16th and early 20th century.
Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was Abd-ar-rahman I. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From 756 to 929, this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until Abd-ar-rahman III reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they didn't claim the caliphate until 929. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the Umayyad article.
Claims to the caliphate
Many local rulers throughout Islamic history have claimed to be caliphs. Most claims were ignored outside their limited domains. In many cases, these claims were made by rebels against established authorities and died when the rebellion was crushed. Notable claimants include:
Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, who held the Hijaz against the Ummayad، certain scholars considered him a legitimate caliph, being a close companion of Muhammad. His rebellion, centered in Makkah, was crushed by an infamous Umayyad general, Hajjaj. Hajjaj's attack caused some damage in Makkah, and necessitated the rebuilding of the Ka'ba.
Caliph of the Sudan, a Songhai king of the Sahel
Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, who claimed Caliphate at Medina two days after it was abandoned by the Republic of Turkey. The Saudis, realizing that a unified Islamic government would pose a threat to the absolute monarchy that they held over Arabia quicky defeated his movement.
The Khalifatul Masih of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.Further Information
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